Fig. 4

Living with HIV is associated with distinct intestinal and fecal microbial dysbiosis, characterized by a reduction in butyrate-producing bacteria. A Alpha diversity indices (Richness, Shannon, Faith’s phylogenetic diversity) reveal reduced colon microbiome diversity in PLWH on ART vs. controls. B Butyrate-producing microbiota's relative abundance in feces, ileum, and colon for both study groups are illustrated. Medians and IQR are depicted, with significance derived from Mann–Whitney U tests. C Differential bacterial abundance between tissue and fecal samples on a logarithmic scale. Comparisons include colon vs. feces (red), ileum vs. feces (blue), and ileum vs. colon (green). Significance markers: FDR < 0.05 (closed circles) and FDR > 0.05 (open circles). Adjustments made for multiple tests using the Benjamini–Hochberg method. D Log-scale differences in bacterial abundance across colon (triangle), ileum (square), and feces (circle) between PLWoH and PLWH on ART. Analysis incorporated bacterial taxa with > 1% mean relative abundance. Linear models estimated abundance changes, and adjustments for multiple tests used the Benjamini–Hochberg method. Significance markers: FDR < 0.05 (purple), FDR < 0.1 (cyan), and P < 0.05 (green)