Fig. 4

The skin microbial cutotypes and their phylogenetic differences. a PCoA using Jensen-Shannon distance and Bray-Cutis dissimilarity presenting the clustering of 247 samples from the forehead. Box plots in the top right show the mean distance within the corresponding groups in red or in blue. The red horizontal line indicates the average between-clusters distance. The PERMANOVA was calculated with adonis function in the vegan package to determine dissimilarity between two clusters as shown in the top panel. b PCoA analysis depicting the clustering of Singapore Chinese samples from a published dataset. Two principal components are plotted using the ade4 package in R with each sample represented by a filled circle or filled triangle. AD-atopic dermatitis. c Relative abundances of the two species C. acnes (upper) and M. Osloensis (lower). Based on PCoA results using Jensen-Shannon distances, the log₁₀ of relative abundance in each sample was indicated by color. d Co-occurrence networks of the two cutotypes. Species enriched in the M-cutotype are shown on the left side, while species enriched in the C-cutotype are shown on the right side. Each node represents a species and the size of the node indicates the number of connections of the node to other nodes. Connect lines in red or blue indicate negative or positive correlation respectively. e Box plot showing the gene-based α-diversity (Shannon index) of the M-cutotype and the C-cutotype (** p < 0.01, Wilcoxon rank-sum test)