Fig. 5

ImP, ImP-related microbial species, functional components, and serum inflammatory markers, in relation to carotid artery plaque. A Associations between ImP, gut microbiota (GMB) score, and individual microbial species, after adjustment for demographic, behavioral, clinical, and HIV-specific variables. The beta coefficients for individual microbial species were estimated in conditional analysis regression models, with mutual adjustment for other ImP-related microbial species. B Associations between the identified ImP-associated microbial species, GMB score, and carotid artery plaque. Data are odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for carotid artery plaque per standard deviation increment of CLR transformed abundance of gut bacterial species, adjusted for demographic, behavioral, clinical, and HIV-specific variables. C Plasma ImP and D gut microbial enzyme hutH, according to the levels of ImP associated GMB score (low, quartile 1 of GMB score; medium, quartiles 2 and 3; high, quartile 4). Data are adjusted means and 95% CIs estimated from regression after adjustment for demographic, behavioral, clinical, and HIV-specific variables. E Plasma ImP according to the levels of gut microbial enzyme hutH (low, quartile 1 of hutH; medium, quartiles 2 and 3; high, quartile 4). Data are adjusted means and 95% CIs estimated from regression after adjustment for demographic, behavioral, clinical, and HIV-specific variables. F ImP-associated GMB score, proteomics PLSDA PCs, and their major contributors. Abbreviations: ImP, imidazole propionate; GMB, gut microbiota; PLSDA, partial least square-discriminant analysis