Fig. 4

Plasma metabolomic profiles, gut microbiome, and serum proteomic inflammatory markers, in relation to carotid artery plaque. A Plaque-associated microbial species and polar metabolites. B Associations between microbial-associated metabolites and carotid artery plaque, adjusted for age, race, study site, antibiotics use, income, education, BMI, alcohol, smoking status, HIV status, and ART use. Levels: low, quartile 1 of the metabolite; medium, quartile 2 and 3; high, quartile 4. C Microbial-associated metabolites, proteomics PLSDA PCs, and their major contributors. D Associations between microbial species and plaque status, adjusted for metabolomic profiles. Data are odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for carotid artery plaque per standard deviation increment of CLR transformed abundance of gut bacterial species, adjusted for age, race, study site, antibiotics use, income, education, BMI, alcohol, smoking status, HIV status, and ART use (model 1); further adjusted for Imidazolepropionic acid (model 2); and further adjusted for top 5 proteomics PLSDA PCs (model 3). Abbreviations: Ref, reference group; PLSDA, partial least square-discriminant analysis