Fig. 11

A schematic diagram of the mechanism of action. Rats with VDN-induced vascular calcification had intestinal microbiota homeostasis imbalance, decreased SCFA production, increased LPS content, mucosal barrier integrity impairment and gut ‘leakage’, which can trigger systemic inflammatory responses, finally aggravating vascular calcification. Supplementation with the SCFA propionate, faecal microbiota transplantation or Akkermansia transplantation can maintain the balance of the intestinal microbiota, promote the production of SCFAs and reduce LPS levels. In this way, propionate could protect the integrity of the mucosal barrier, prevent gut ‘leakage’ and inhibit inflammatory responses, resulting in the alleviation of vascular calcification