Fig. 2

Effects of intestinal helminth infection status on gut microbial diversity and composition for the 351 Orang Asli individuals. A The prevalence of intestinal helminth infection in the OA cohort based on overall infection status, as well as specific intestinal helminth infection (i.e., trichuriasis, ascariasis, and hookworm infection). B Principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) of Jaccard distances based on gut microbiota profiles (species levels) of the OA cohort. The individuals infected and uninfected with intestinal helminths are denoted by blue and red, respectively (ADONIS: p = 0.001, R² = 0.024; ANOSIM: p = 0.001, R = 0.145). C Alpha-diversity box plot of species richness based on different status of intestinal helminth infection, number of intestinal helminth infection, Trichuris infection, and intensity of Trichuris infection. Wilcoxon rank-sum test is used for two independent variables, while the Kruskal-Wallis test is used for more than two comparison groups. D The prevalence of intestinal helminth infection (top) and Trichuris infection (bottom) by different geographical locations. E Comparison of alpha diversity (species richness) between individuals from KL and specific OA villages. F Spearman correlation between the intensity of Trichuris infection and percentage of unmapped reads to the HRGM database (p = 3.200e⁻⁶, R = 0.250). The blue line represents the linear regression between intensity of Trichuris infection and percentage of unmapped reads. G Bar plot of the F statistic values from ADONIS analysis of variables that contribute to the gut microbiota composition. Colored bars indicate the variables that show significant effects on gut microbiota variation (p < 0.05). H Bar plot of effect size of the variables (village [p = 2.610e⁻⁰⁸, pseudo R² = 0.027], helminth infection [p = 0.029, pseudo R² = 0.004], and interactions between helminth village [p = 0.002, pseudo R² = 0.016]) that contribute significantly to the variance of the microbiota based on MDMR analysis. I Heatmap of bacterial species associated with village, helminth infections, and interactions from MaAsLin2. Blue for positive association and red for negative association