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Table 1 Summary of characteristics of non-T1D and T1D pregnancies

From: Type 1 diabetes in pregnancy is associated with distinct changes in the composition and function of the gut microbiome

General

Non-T1D

T1D

P value**

Overall number of samples: n (%)

66 (49.3)

68 (50.7)

 

 Trimester 1

11 (16.7)

12 (17.6)

 

 Trimester 2

21 (31.8)

22 (32.4)

 

 Trimester 3

34 (51.5)

34 (50.0)

 

 All three trimesters (% pregnancies)

12 (35.3)

12 (33.3)

 

 All three trimesters (% samples)

12 (18.2)

12 (18.2)

 

 Gestational age in days at fecal sample: mean (SD)

  Trimester 1

75.4 (16.5)

75.3 (16.5)

 

  Trimester 2

150.8 (26.6)

148.4 (26.6)

 

  Trimester 3

247.6 (14.6)

234.7 (14.6)

0.001

Maternal

 Overall number of pregnancies

34

36

 

 Age in years at conception: mean (SD)

33 (4.1)

32.3 (4.0)

 

 Paternal missing n (%)

1 (2.9)

2 (5.6)

 

 Assisted conception: n (%)

3 (8.8)

4 (11.1)

 

 Twin pregnancy: n (%)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

 

 Nulliparous: n (%)

14 (41.2)

18 (50.0)

 

 Pre-eclampsia: n (%)

0 (0.0)

4 (11.1)

0.018

 Group B Streptococcus positive: n (%)

7 (20.6)

1 (2.8)

 

 Genito-urinary infections: n (%)

2 (5.9)

5 (13.9)

 

 Pre-pregnancy BMI: mean (SD)

24.7 (4.8)

25.8 (4.7)

 

 Underweight (< 18.5): n (%)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

 

 Normal weight (18.5–24.9): n (%)

21 (61.8)

18 (50.0)

 

 Overweight weight (25–29.9): n (%)

6 (17.6)

10 (27.8)

 

 Obese (> 30): n (%)

7 (20.6)

8 (22.2)

 

 Gestational weight gain (kg): Mean (SD)

13 (5.0)

11.5 (4.9)

 

 Gestational weight gain (kg): n (%)

2 (5.9)

2 (5.6)

 

Paternal

 Age in years at conception: mean (SD)

34.8 (5.2)

32.7 (4.8)

0.093

 Pre-pregnancy BMI: mean (SD)

28.6 (4.3)

27.6 (4.3)

 

 Underweight (BMI < 18.5): n (%)

0 (0.0)

1 (2.8)

 

 Normal weight (BMI18.5–24.9): n (%)

4 (11.8)

6 (16.7)

 

 Overweight (BMI 25–29.9): n (%)

10 (29.4)

8 (22.2)

 

 Obese (> 30): n (%)

6 (17.6)

9 (25.0)

 

 Missing: n (%)

14 (41.2)

12 (33.3)

 

Maternal demographics

 Born in Australia: n (%)

  Yes

30 (88.2)

24 (66.7)

 

  Unknown

0 (0.0)

1 (2.8)

 

 Education beyond high school: n (%)

  Yes

30 (88.2)

29 (80.6)

 

  Unknown

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

 

 Lives in a metro area: n (%)

31 (91.2)

35 (97.2)

 

 Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas (SEIFA) Index of Relative Socio-Economic Disadvantage (IRSD)

  Quintile 1 n (%)

2 (5.9)

1 (2.8)

 

  Quintile 2 n (%)

2 (5.9)

3 (8.3)

 

  Quintile 3 n (%)

13 (38.2)

8 (22.2)

 

  Quintile 4 n (%)

4 (11.8)

9 (25.0)

 

  Quintile 5 n (%)

13 (38.2)

15 (41.7)

 

 Smoking during pregnancy: n (%)

3 (8.8)

0 (0.0)

 

 Household smoking during pregnancy: n (%)

5 (14.7)

6 (16.7)

 

 Adults in house during pregnancy: n (%)

  One

0 (0.0)

2 (5.6)

 

  Two

31 (91.2)

29 (80.6)

 

 More than two

3 (8.8)

5 (13.9)

 

 Children in house during pregnancy: n (%)

  None

14 (41.2)

18 (50.0)

 

  One

8 (23.5)

10 (27.8)

 

  Two

5 (14.7)

7 (19.4)

 

  More than two

7 (20.6)

1 (2.8)

 

 Furred pet ownership during pregnancy: n (%)

24 (70.6)

20 (55.6)

 

Diet and physical activity in pregnancy

 Diet: mean (SD)

  Energy/day (kJ)

6617.3 (2277.5)

6445.6 (2185.9)

 

  Fat (g)

68.8 (27.0)

71.7 (26.8)

 

  Protein (g)

77.1 (29.9)

80.3 (29.6)

 

  Carbohydrate (g)

163.8 (57.9)

142.4 (52.6)

 

  Fibre (g)

18.4 (6.1)

17.9 (5.9)

 

 Diet: Missing: n (%)

0 (0.0)

2 (5.6)

 

 Alcohol consumed: n (%)

  Yes

6 (17.6)

7 (19.4)

 

  Unknown

0 (0.0)

2 (5.6)

 

 Metabolic equivalent of task (MET) (h/wk): mean (SD)

254.5 (100.9)

267.9 (102.2)

 

Biological data

 HbA1c (%)

  Trimester 1: median (IQR)

–

6.8 (1.6)

 

  Trimester 2: median (IQR)

–

6.1 (1.3)

 

  Trimester 3: median (IQR)

–

6.1 (0.8)

 

  Trimester 1: missing

–

1 (8.3)

 

  Trimester 2: missing

–

3 (13.6)

 

  Trimester 3: missing

–

14 (41.2)

 

 1,5-anhydroglucitol (AG) (μg/mL)

  Trimester 1: median (IQR)

14.1 (13.1)

3.4 (1.5)

 

  Trimester 2: median (IQR)

11.5 (4.9)

2.5 (2.3)

 

  Trimester 3: median (IQR)

8.1 (6.3)

2.4 (1.3)

 

  Trimester 1: mean (SD)

14.1 (5.9)

3.4 (2.9)

< 0.001

  Trimester 2: mean (SD)

11.2 (5.1)

2.3 (2.2)

< 0.001

  Trimester 3: mean (SD)

8.7 (3.8)

2.4 (2.0)

< 0.001

  Trimester 2: missing n (%)

1 (4.8)

1 (4.5)

 

  Trimester 3: missing n (%)

2 (5.9)

8 (23.5)

 

 Serum vitamin D (nmol/L): mean (SD)

  Trimester 1

83 (26.9)

76.7 (25.8)

 

  Trimester 2

96.7 (27.0)

85.5 (24.5)

 

  Trimester 3

92.9 (31.6)

96.4 (29.9)

 

  Trimester 1: missing n (%)

0 (0.0)

1 (8.3)

 

  Trimester 3: missing n (%)

2 (5.9)

3 (8.8)

 

 Vitamin B6 (nmol/L): mean (SD)

 Trimester 3

76 (75.8)

70 (102.4)

 

 Vitamin B12 (nmol/L): mean (SD)

 Trimester 3

84 (116)

154 (138)

 

 Maternal HLA: n (%)

  DR34

3 (8.8)

14 (38.9)

 

  DR3 or DR4

20 (58.8)

19 (52.8)

 

  DRXX

11 (32.4)

3 (8.3)

0.002

Known supplements in pregnancy

 Antibiotics: n (%)

9 (26.5)

10 (27.8)

 

 Anticoagulants: n (%)

3 (8.8)

6 (16.7)

 

 Antihypertensive agents: n (%)

0 (0.0)

4 (11.1)

 

Known other supplements pre-pregnancy and pregnancy

 Biotin: n (%)

12 (35.3)

9 (25.0)

 

29 (85.3)

30 (83.3)

 Calcium: n (%)

13 (38.2)

10 (27.8)

 

30 (88.2)

33 (91.7)

 Iron

14 (41.2)

9 (25.0)

 

32 (94.1)

35 (97.2)

 Magnesium: n (%)

14 (41.2)

9 (25.0)

 

31 (91.2)

32 (88.9)

 Selenium: n (%)

12 (35.3)

9 (25.0)

 

29 (85.3

30 (83.3)

 Vitamin B1: n (%)

14 (41.2)

9 (25.0)

 

32 (94.1)

32 (88.9)

 Vitamin B2: n (%)

14 (41.2)

9 (25.0)

 

31 (91.2)

32 (88.9)

 Vitamin B3: n (%)

14 (41.2)

9 (25.0)

 

31 (91.2)

32 (88.9)

 Vitamin B5: n (%)

9 (26.5)

6 (16.7)

 

18 (52.9)

16 (44.4)

 Vitamin B6: n (%)

14 (41.2)

9 (25.0)

 

32 (94.1)

32 (88.9)

 Vitamin B9 (folate): n (%)

14 (41.2)

15 (41.7)

 

32 (94.1)

36 (100.0)

 Vitamin B12: n (%)

14 (41.2)

9 (25.0)

 

32 (94.1)

30 (83.3)

 Vitamin D: n (%)

14 (41.2)

10 (27.8)

 

33 (97.1)

33 (91.7)

 Vitamin E: n (%)

13 (38.2)

8 (22.2)

 

28 (82.4)

27 (75.0)

Other

 Vaccine: n (%)

  Yes (Flu only)

1 (2.9)

3 (8.3)

 

  Yes (Pertussis only)

3 (8.8)

3 (8.3)

 

  Yes (Flu and Pertussis)

11 (32.4)

10 (27.8)

 

 Mode of delivery: n (%)

  Vaginal

25 (73.5)

14 (38.9)

 

  Caesarean (with labour)

1 (2.9)

4 (11.1)

 

  Caesarean (without labour)

8 (23.5)

18 (50.0)

0.011

  1. Log transformation was used for age at conception: Paternal
  2. Square root transformation was used for all diet variables except carbohydrate and fibre
  3. Square root transformation was used for 1,5-AG in all trimesters and for vitamin D in trimester 2
  4. Hb1A-c, 1,5-AG and vitamin D are based on samples, not pregnancies
  5. NM not measured
  6. ** Blank cells indicate P value non-significant. P values for HLA are determined against DRXX as baseline
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