| n (%) or mean [range] | p value1 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
All (n = 145) | Vaginal (n = 97) | Cesarean (n = 48) |  | |
Maternal characteristics | ||||
 Maternal age | 31.9 [22–44] | 31.8 [22–44] | 32.2 [23–42] | 0.65 |
 Education level |  |  |  | 0.14 |
  Less than 11th grade | 1 (0.7) | 1 (1.0) | 0 (0.0) |  |
  High school graduate or equivalent | 15 (10.3) | 7 (7.2) | 8 (16.7) | |
  Junior college graduate or some college | 25 (17.2) | 16 (16.5) | 9 (18.8) | |
  College graduate | 54 (37.2) | 34 (35.1) | 20 (41.7) | |
  Any post-graduate schooling | 50 (34.5) | 39 (40.2) | 11 (22.9) | |
 Relationship status |  |  |  | 0.29 |
  Married | 133 (91.7) | 91 (93.8) | 42 (87.5) |  |
  Separated or divorced | 3 (2.1) | 1 (1.0) | 2 (4.2) | |
  Single and never married | 9 (6.2) | 5 (5.2) | 4 (8.3) | |
 Smoking |  |  |  | 0.43 |
  No | 138 (95.2) | 91 (93.8) | 47 (97.9) |  |
  Yes | 7 (4.8) | 6 (6.2) | 1 (2.1) | |
 Parity | 0.8 [0–4] | 0.9 [0–4] | 0.7 [0–2] | 0.07 |
 Maternal BMI | 25.6 [17.4–47.8] | 26.0 [17.4–47.8] | 24.7 [18.4–42.1] | 0.22 |
 Gestational diabetes2 |  |  |  | 0.58 |
  No | 121 (83.4) | 84 (86.6) | 37 (77.1) |  |
  Yes | 16 (11.0) | 10 (10.3) | 6 (12.5) | |
 Dietary factors (servings/day)3 | ||||
  aMED score | 3.67 [0–7] | 3.8 [0–7] | 3.5 [0–7] | 0.32 |
  Dairy | 3.6 [0.0–8.5] | 3.7 [0.0–8.5] | 3.5 [0.8–6.8] | 0.40 |
  Fruit | 2.3 [0.0–5.9] | 2.3 [0.2–5.9] | 2.2 [0.0–5.6] | 0.52 |
  Vegetables | 3.3 [0.0–9.6] | 3.3 [0.5–9.6] | 3.2 [0.0–7.6] | 0.78 |
  Whole grains | 1.0 [0.0–4.1] | 1.2 [0.1–4.1] | 0.9 [0.0–3.1] | 0.03 |
  Fish and seafood | 0.2 [0.0–1.0] | 0.2 [0.0–1.0] | 0.2 [0.0–0.6] | 0.56 |
  Nuts, legumes, and soy | 0.9 [0.0–4.5] | 0.9 [0.0–3.1] | 0.9 [0.0–4.5] | 1.00 |
  Red and processed meat | 0.8 [0.0–2.3] | 0.7 [0.0–2.0] | 0.8 [0.0–2.3] | 0.21 |
  Polyunsaturated fat (g/day) | 13.9 [8.67–23.7] | 13.6 [8.7–21.0] | 14.5 [9.2–23.7] | 0.12 |
  EPA (g/day) | 0.1 [0.0–0.5] | 0.1 [0.0–0.5] | 0.1 [0.0–0.5] | 0.28 |
  DHA (g/day) | 0.1 [0.0–0.6] | 0.1 [0.0–0.6] | 0.1 [0.0–0.5] | 0.79 |
  Monounsaturated:saturated fatty acid ratio | 1.1 [0.7–2.3] | 1.1 [0.7–2.1] | 1.2 [0.7–2.3] | 0.35 |
Infant characteristics | ||||
 Sex |  |  |  | 0.38 |
  Female | 62 (42.8) | 44 (45.4) | 18 (37.5) |  |
  Male | 83 (57.2) | 53 (54.6) | 30 (62.5) | |
 Birth weight (g)4 | 3427.4 [1960–4710] | 3466.3 [2030–4565] | 3348.9 [1960–4710] | 0.18 |
 Gestational age (weeks) | 39.3 [30.4–43.4] | 39.5 [30.4–42.1] | 39.1 [33.4–43.4] | 0.21 |
 Feeding method |  |  |  | 0.04 |
  Exclusively breastfed | 102 (70.3) | 74 (76.3) | 28 (58.3) |  |
  Combination | 37 (25.5) | 21 (21.7) | 16 (33.3) | |
  Exclusively formula fed | 6 (4.1) | 2 (2.1) | 4 (8.3) | |
 Antibiotics by 4 months old5 |  |  |  | 0.66 |
  No | 135 (93.1) | 91 (93.8) | 44 (91.7) |  |
  Yes | 5 (3.5) | 3 (3.1) | 2 (4.2) |