Bloom and bust: intestinal microbiota dynamics in response to hospital exposures and Clostridium difficile colonization or infection

Table 3 Associations between medication use and intestinal microbiota diversity

Medication^a	No. of patients exposed	No. of samples exposed	Estimate^b	Standard error	P value^c
Antibiotics
Cephalosporins	57	81	−0.06	0.07	0.3764
Fluoroquinolones	8	15	−0.20	0.10	0.0367
Penicillin with β-lactamase inhibitors	7	12	−0.17	0.19	0.3805
Carbapenems	5	11	−0.30	0.26	0.2417
Intravenous vancomycin	6	12	−0.41	0.15	0.0080
Other medications
Glucocorticoids	7	13	−0.02	0.17	0.8977
Laxatives	13	24	−0.05	0.09	0.5976
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs	30	57	0.08	0.08	0.3264
Opioids	23	38	0.13	0.06	0.0202
Proton pump inhibitors	21	54	−0.11	0.10	0.2738

Among patients who were neither colonized nor infected with C. difficile
^aReceived within 3 days prior to stool collection
^bA positive value indicates that intestinal microbiota diversity was higher among patients exposed to the medication, while a negative value indicates that intestinal microbiota diversity was lower
^c P values were determined by using the GEE-derived robust z scores