Fig. 4

Rumen resistome associated with its bacterial community. A The most abundant host bacterial families of ARGs. Dots’ size represents the average relative abundance of bacteria at a certain age. B Procrustes analysis of the association between the composition of the resistome and that of bacterial community among different ages. The correlation coefficient, r, and P-value were generated by the ‘protest’ function, with p < 0.05 as the significant threshold. C A network analysis of the co-occurrence patterns between ARG and microbial taxa. The SparCC algorithm was used to calculate the relationships between bacterial taxa and ARGs. High abundances of families of Proteobacteria, such as Enterobacteriaceae, Pasteurellaceae, and Pseudomonadaceae, on d1, were strongly correlated with ARGs (ROB, GYRA, and RPOB) enriched. The abundance of bacterial families (Xanthomonadaceae, Prevotellaceae, and Fibrobacteraceae) increased with age and were associated with the ARGs as signatures during the starter supplementation period (d42 to d84)